|
An Analysis of Current Problems and New Opportunities for the International Development of Agricultural Biotechnology
Summary In this chapter, we outline some of the problems associated with the use of agricultural biotechnology products in developing countries, and how strong international relationships between government agencies, universities and companies can facilitate the development of these technologies. We also discuss the benefits of investing in the use of naturally-produced, plant-derived products as an alternative to conventional pesticides and/or transgenic agricultural products. The working relationships for over a decade between institutions and scientists in the United States and Turkey to develop plant-derived agricultural products are described as an example. Introduction The industrial revolution which began in Europe in the 1800s changed forever the way people would live and work. The detrimental impact of large-scale industrialization on the environment has resulted in serious global problems. Global overpopulation, combined with the continual loss of agricultural land to development, is straining scarce agricultural resources, particularly in developing countries where the majority of these resources are exported. The release of massive and increasing amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere has resulted in a definite global warming trend. While the long-term effects of this warming cannot be predicted, global climactic change accompanied by unusual and severe weather patterns is a probable risk. Ozone-depleting halogenated chemicals such as methyl bromide are now being phased out of use; unfortunately, these compounds will continue to circulate and destroy stratospheric ozone for decades after their production ceases. The contamination of ground and surface water by a mixture of agricultural chemicals threatens the health and fertility of the creatures that drink or swim in it, including people. It
is unfortunate that new technologies are now viewed with suspicion and
distrust by governmental regulators and the general population, leading to
conflicts between industries attempting to develop these technologies and
regulatory agencies or environmental or consumer groups. Genuine goodwill
and cooperation between industry and regulators concerned with the
environment or with human safety may lead to opportunities for the
development of agricultural biotechnologies, which when used appropriately
may help solve some of the problems listed above. In this chapter we will
discuss how government agencies, universities and the agricultural
biotechnology industry can cooperate internationally to develop useful
agricultural biotechnologies. The Role of Universities in the Development of Biotechnology Many companies already recognize that university laboratories generate high-quality research, and that it is often less expensive to work with a university researcher with an established laboratory than to set up and staff a laboratory of one’s own. The role of universities in the development of biotechnology is greater than this, however. Universities are intended to nurture creative thinking and innovation. Often the ideas of university researchers can be developed into new and successful patentable technologies. Good universities also graduate highly skilled, broadly educated and creative researchers, which are essential to the success of any biotechnology company. The development of Research Triangle Park in North Carolina exemplifies how universities can stimulate industrial development. Unfortunately, large, well-established research parks can be prohibitively expensive for smaller biotechnology companies looking for a startup location. In order to encourage the growth and development of the industry and the formation of new companies, it is important that new research parks be generated. The development of one such facility is underway at Auburn University (AU), located in Auburn, Alabama, and is expected to be successful for a variety of reasons. Auburn is an ideal business location: land and utilities are inexpensive, taxes are low, Auburn is only a 1 ½ hour drive away from Atlanta, Georgia, and there are many excellent golf courses nearby, as well as an airport designed to handle small corporate aircraft. The presence of the university makes Auburn an ideal location for biotech companies in particular, since AU has strong agricultural, forestry, aquaculture and veterinary programs. AU has also recently prioritized the enhancement of its Cell and Molecular Biology program, and many of the researchers involved in this program are interested in agricultural biotechnologies. Some of the technologies that have been developed or are in the process of development at Auburn include the immunization of crops against plant pathogens, and the production of genetically engineered livestock. AU is also involved in international programs in agriculture and aquaculture with developing countries, including Turkey, Indonesia, China and the Philippines. The development of international relationships can greatly facilitate the development of new biotechnologies, as we shall discuss below. Forming Positive International Relationships with Developing Countries Restrictions on the use of genetically engineered organisms in developed countries are impeding the development of technologies involving such organisms. Companies may therefore consider working in a developing country, where such restrictions do not exist or are less restrictive. There are several problems associated with working in a developing country, which must be addressed for the association between the country and the company to be a mutually beneficial one. Perhaps the largest obstacle is a lack of information, often on both sides. Government officials in a developing country may not fully understand the technologies and therefore make unwise decisions or have unrealistic expectations, particularly when lobbied by various agricultural industries, which may not have the best interests of the country and its people in mind. Highly skilled researchers and technical personnel are required for biotechnology research and product generation, considering that even the workers who handle pesticides or fumigants require training. At the same time, agro-biotech companies seeking markets in developing countries may be ignorant of the local crops, farming methods, pests and climactic or soil conditions, and any attempt to introduce biotechnology products using methods which are inappropriate could result in failed crops, escape of engineered genes or the development of resistance to cloned gene products by pathogens or pests. The training of highly skilled workers is one area where universities are particularly helpful. Students from foreign countries can be educated in the United States or other developed countries as a part of international exchange programs, or alternatively professors from the United States can be sent to teach in developing countries. For example, Auburn University currently has a cooperative agreement with Akdeniz University in Antalya, Turkey, whereby Turkish students or visiting scientists are allowed to visit AU and acquire hands-on training in the latest molecular biology techniques. AU also sends professors to Turkey to teach courses in plant biotechnology and molecular biology. As a result of this inter-university relationship, there are now more highly skilled students graduating in Turkey with qualifications and experience comparable to those of a student educated in the United States. It is extremely important that a company seeking to locate in a developing country has respect for that country and its people, and is willing to work with and learn from them. Local crops and varieties are best suited to the local growing conditions, and local university or government researchers and farmers are most knowledgeable about these conditions and the needs of farmers. We highly recommend forming a strong working relationship with local institutions (e.g. universities or local companies specially formed to deal with biotechnologies) when working in a developing country. Local researchers or thoroughly knowledgeable businessmen, in addition to providing useful information, are often better able to communicate with, and more likely to be trusted by, the local government and farming communities. It is important to choose or encourage the formation of a local company which has the ability to handle the protection of property rights, educate farmers and other users, and which will guarantee that it will act to minimize the risks associated the handling of biotechnologies. For example, current nursery growers or seed producers in developing countries will not understand that transgenic plants must be handled differently than conventionally bred varieties. Cloned plant marker or target genes may escape to the wild via pollen, and single-gene resistant transgenic plants must still be sprayed with pesticides to delay the evolution of resistant pathogen or pest races. Unless local nurseries or seed companies are willing to change their operations to handle transgenic plants properly (and would guarantee that they will accept responsibility for any problems that arise from improper handling) it would be more prudent to deal with a company designed from the beginning to handle transgenic plants. Another problem is that of product failure. A crop or variety which has been developed and tested in the U.S., for example, will not grow everywhere. It is usually more effective to take a local crop variety and work to improve it than to import an alien crop developed elsewhere that may not grow well or at all. Crop varieties that are found to be “resistant” to insect pests or pathogens should be rigorously tested to verify resistance in each country they are to be sold in, since the races of pests and pathogens will differ between countries. Generally farmers or agricultural ministries in developing countries find it difficult to afford conventional agro-chemicals, let alone transgenic plants or animals- an expensive product must produce the promised results, without deleterious side-effects, or farmers can be devastated and your company will lose revenue and the goodwill of the local government and farming community. A third problem is that of standards. Some developing countries have few or no restrictions on the use of dangerous agricultural chemicals which have been banned elsewhere, for example, or may not require risk assessments for the release of new organisms which may pose a threat to the local environment. There may be no requirement to ensure that hazardous wastes are disposed of responsibly, or that workers handling toxic materials be informed of the risks and taught how to protect themselves. Lack of governmental regulations or enforcement of these should never be interpreted by a company as a license to pollute or place human safety at risk. Leaving ethical considerations aside, agro-biotech companies whose operations result in environmental degradation or threats to human safety will generate negative publicity, which will tarnish the reputation of not only the company involved, but all agricultural biotechnology companies. In many countries, the general public is already suspicious of new agricultural technologies, and each new example of abuse by one agro-biotechnology company will make it increasingly more difficult for any agro-biotechnology company to develop and market its products in these countries. Care should always be taken to ensure that the product or methods being prescribed or developed in a particular country will work as promised, and that their production or use will benefit rather than harm the people of that country. In the long run, this course of action will be most profitable. Alternatives to Conventional and High-Tech Biotechnologies in Agriculture As we have already noted, developed countries are highly suspicious of high-tech biotechnologies, such as the use of genetically engineered organisms, and developing countries are often lacking in the funds to invest heavily in the production or use of these organisms. The development of alternative technologies, such as the use of natural plant products as pesticides or veterinary medicines, or the immunization of plants to improve growth and disease resistance, can be a rewarding avenue of research and product development. These technologies are patentable (for example, the process of plant immunization using microbes or microbial components has been patented by Backman and Tuzun, U.S. Patent No. 5,888,501), occur naturally and therefore are generally considered to be benign in terms of effects on human and environmental health, and are not subject to as many regulatory restrictions as the use of genetically modified organisms (as also indicated by the U.S. E.P.A speaker during the 1999 Ag-Biotech Forum). While researching and developing an alternative technology will require an initial investment, the size of the investment is generally smaller than that associated with the development of genetically modified organisms or synthetic agro-chemicals, and usually associated with a more rapid return. Lesser research costs result in a less expensive product that is easier to market, both in developed and developing countries. Alternative biotechnology products may also be attractive to markets closed to other agricultural products. Organic growers, for example, will not use petrochemically-derived pesticides or genetically-modified plants, but are interested in the use of plant-derived pesticides. Natural extracts obtained from plants have the potential to make superior pesticides, since these products contain multiple active compounds which often act synergistically, meaning that these extracts can function as multi-site (broad spectrum activity) pesticides. A pathogen may evolve resistance to a systemic pesticide with single-site activity, such as metalaxyl, relatively quickly; this has already been noted in Phythophthora spp. The activity of several natural plant extracts against plant pathogens has already been observed to be superior to recommended pesticides or fumigants such as copper sulphate or Dazomet (see next section). In addition, plant-derived pesticides are less recalcitrant to biodegradation than petrochemically-derived ones, and therefore unable to bioaccumulate in animal tissues to toxic levels or pollute the environment. Plant extracts have been used for millennia in traditional or folk medicine, and compounds extracted from plants (e.g., digitalis and salicylic acid) have long been used in conventional Western medicine. While we are not aware of any agricultural veterinary medicines or feed additives based on plant extracts, we are confident that such products could be developed. It should be noted that plants produce pesticidal, insecticidal or medicinal compounds in varying amounts at different times of the year, and when grown under different environmental conditions. In order to produce a product based upon plant extracts, organization is extremely important: plants must be farmed under specific conditions and harvested at the appropriate time, and plant extracts must be derived soon after that, followed by formulation into the final product. It is also essential to farm superior varieties of plants rather than to wild craft them, to ensure that the same varieties of plants are always used, and to prevent ecosystem disturbances resulting from the over harvesting of one particular wild plant. Many wild Turkish plant species (e.g. kardelen, which was used as a genetic source in developed countries) are now extinct due to over harvesting. Insect lures are an effective way to reduce crop losses without resorting to expensive, environmentally hazardous and often ineffective crop dusting with insecticides. A plant-based insect lure which effectively attracts fruit flies but not insects considered beneficial, and that is inexpensive to produce, stable and has a long shelf life, has been developed (see next section). Lures to attract other insects, including household pests, are under development. Finally, it has been known for over 20 years that even the most disease-susceptible plant varieties can become resistant to multiple diseases upon treatment with avirulent or attenuated pathogens, soil or foliar biocontrol organisms or their components. This is a very promising avenue of research and product development since genetic modification is not required to produce disease-resistant plants from otherwise susceptible ones. Perhaps more importantly, the disease resistance in immunized plants is not dependent on a single resistance gene, which means that pathogens cannot easily evolve mechanisms to overcome this resistance. We have listed here only the few alternatives to conventional or high-tech biotechnology that we are aware of , which we are also currently involved in developing. We hope to see in coming years the development of many more inexpensive, safe and environmentally responsible agricultural biotechnology products. Private Sector Involvement in Natural Product Development and Biotechnology Over a decade of research conducted by Turkish and American scientists into the agricultural uses of natural products derived from plants have resulted in the development of several products: Attractin, NAI 4-326, NAI 4-841 and NAI 6-168 (U.S. and worldwide patents pending). Attractin is an effective plant-based fruit fly lure, which has been tested for the past seven years on orange and olive groves in Turkey, and which has produced spectacular results. Atrractin is inexpensive to produce, has a long shelf life, and does not affect insects considered to be beneficial, such as those insects used as biological control agents of fruit flies.
NAI 4-326, NAI 4-641 and NAI 6-168 are products based upon mixtures of extracts of rare wild plant species with growth ranges restricted to specific climactic regions of Turkey. Each product is differently formulated to have a different spectrum of pesticidal activity against soil or foliar microorganisms, insects or nematodes (Figure 1). When used as a soil fumigant, NAI 4-641 has demonstrated consistently in greenhouse and field tests to be an effective alternative to methyl bromide, even more effective than Dazomet. When used in soil applications, plant-derived pesticides also appear to selectively target pathogen groups: microorganisms generally considered plant- or soil-beneficial, such as populations of biocontrol agents (fluorescent pseudomonads and actinomycetes), are affected to a lesser degree than pathogens. In fact, populations of these beneficial organisms were often observed to increase several days after fumigation (most likely due to the reduced competition and increased availability of nutrients), providing additional plant protection. When applied to crop plants as foliar sprays or via irrigation water, each product has demonstrated an ability to promote plant growth as well as effectively protect plants from disease. These products are relatively inexpensive to produce, require no specialized equipment for application to crops, have no known toxicities when used as formulated and are completely biodegradable. Naturale-Agro (Natural Agricultural Research and Development) is a U.S. company formed to further develop, produce, market and license the production and distribution of these products in the United States and Europe. The goal of this company is to produce environmentally responsible, effective agricultural products for use by organic and other growers, and to produce these products in a socially responsible manner. Naturale-Agro is therefore interested not only in generating profitable agricultural products, but wants to help minimize the impact of agriculture on the environment, well as support local farming economies in developing countries. Naturale-Agro has formed strong relationships with researchers at Akdeniz University in Turkey and Auburn University in the United States, as well as with two Turkish plant biotechnology companies, Super T.U.R.K.E., Inc. and Akseki Doğal Tarim, Inc. (Akseki Natural Agriculture Inc., or ADT). Super T.U.R.K.E., Inc., was involved in the initial stages of product development and continues to be involved in the marketing of Attractin in Turkey. ADT has been contracted to ensure a steady and sufficient production of the plant extracts used in NAI 4-326, NAI 4-641 and NAI 6-168. Turkish researchers have already bred superior lines of the plant varieties that will be used in these products. ADT has secured land for farming as well as the cooperation of local farmers for the production and harvesting of these plant species, and will routinely conduct quality control tests to guarantee the quality of the plant extracts it produces. ADT currently has the capacity to derive plant extracts from over 100 metric tons of dried plant material per day. A newer production facility is currently being built to increase this capacity, in the Akseki region of Turkey. This is one of the most economically suppressed regions of Turkey, with erosion-prone soils that do not support most agricultural crops, but which do support the growth of the plants used in NAI 4-326, NAI 4-641 and NAI 6-168. By farming these plants and producing extracts in the Akseki region, we will not only assist the local community economically, we will help control erosion in the area and reduce the pollution and expense associated with trucking large quantities of dried plant material over long distances. Super T.U.R.K.E., Inc. is interested in growing transgenic plants for seed production as well as the production of transgene products (e.g vaccine components or other medically useful proteins expressed in plant tissues). In addition to having a large grower base, Super T.U.R.K.E., Inc. employs well-educated personnel and has access to high-quality research facilities. Its director, in addition to being involved in the Green movement in Germany, has a doctorate in international law, has taught law at several universities and is very familiar with international regulations concerning the safe use and export of transgenic plant-derived products. With the development of the GAP project in the Southeastern Region, Turkey will have the second largest irrigated landmass in the world. Turkey is a major producer of fruits and vegetables for Europe, and must meet the increasing demands for organically grown produce from European consumers. The Turkish government is therefore very interested in any products that can help reduce crop losses of organically grown produce. Recently at the “Organic Agriculture Forum” held in Isparta, Turkey, Prof. Dr. Hüsnü Yusuf Gökalp, the Turkish Minister of Agriculture, clearly indicated that organic farming is a priority for Turkey. Prof. Dr. Gökalp also indicated that Turkey is in the process of developing a policy on the use of genetically modified organisms, but so far has remained open-minded about all newly developed technologies. The open-mindedness of the Turkish government towards both the use of naturally-derived plant compounds and transgenic plants, combined with the high quality of biotechnology education available to students at Akdeniz University via exchanges with Auburn University, the development of strong local plant biotechnology companies such as ADT and Super T.U.R.K.E., Inc., and the planned establishment of an international plant biotechnology research center in Antalya (recently declared “City of the World” for the 21st century by an international panel) leads us to predict a very bright future for the plant biotechnology industry in Turkey. Closing Comments and Contact Information It is important to realize that the successful development of useful agricultural biotechnologies can be best achieved via interactions between governments, universities and private companies. Auburn University is open to new investments by biotechnology companies seeking an agreeable and inexpensive location. For further information on this subject, or on biotechnology research and development at Auburn University, please contact Dr. Jan Dowdle Thorton at the A.U. Industrial Programs and Technology Transfer Office: 309 Samford Hall, Auburn, AL 36849-5176, phone (334) 844-4977, fax (334) 844-5963, thornjd@mail.auburn.edu. Naturale-Agro, Super T.U.R.K.E., Inc. and Akseki Doğal Tarim, Inc. look forward to developing relationships with other companies, government and public institutions to increase the agricultural potential of naturally-derived pesticides, in addition to promoting the use of their products and services. For general information in English about these companies or their products and services, or any other inquiries related to this chapter, please contact Dr. Sadik Tuzun: 209 Life Sciences Building, Auburn University, 36849, phone (334) 844-1997, cellular (334) 740-0767, fax (334) 844-1947, stuzun@acesag.auburn.edu. Requests for detailed information will be relayed to the appropriate persons. Information in German or Turkish is also available upon request.
|